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THE WILEY TECHNICAL SERIES 

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VOCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 

EDITED BY 

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GIRARD COLLEGE 



THE WILEY TECHNICAL SERIES 

EDITED BY 

JOSEPH M. JAMESON 



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Field and Laboratory Studies of Crops. By Pro- 
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Injurious Insects. By Dean E. D. Sanderson and 
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For full announcement see list following index. 
IM. 9/1/15 




Under the Soil Id any Field is Solid Rock. 
Frontispiece. (Adapted from Hall.) 



FIELD AND LABORATORY 

STUDIES OF SOILS 



AN ELEMENTARY MANUAL 
FOR STUDENTS OF AGRICULTURE 



A. G. McCALL 

Professor of Agronomy, Ohio State University 



FIRST EDITION 

FIRST THOUSAND 



NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. 
London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 

1915 






Copyright, 1915, 

BY 

A. G. McCALL 




THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS 

ROBERT DRUMMOND AND COMPANY 

BROOKLYN. N. Y. 

©CI.A416181 

NOV 2 1915 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 



This little book of soil experiments has been prepared 
in response to the demand for a brief laboratory and field 
course in elementary soils, which may be given without 
the purchase of expensive equipment. With a few tools 
and the aid of the pupils, the teacher should be able to 
construct all of the apparatus necessary for many of the ex- 
ercises. Such cooperation on the part of the students will 
stimulate a keener interest in the work than can be secured 
by the exclusive use of purchased materials. However, as 
funds become available, it is advised that special equip- 
ment be purchased and substituted for the less satisfac- 
tory, home-made apparatus. 

In many schools apparatus from the chemical and 
botanical laboratories will be available for the soil work. 
For example, a good balance may be purchased for the 
joint use of the chemical and soils laboratories, and the 
compound microscope may serve for both botany and 
soils. The first purchase of equipment should include 
the following: 

1. Gasoline or kerosene stove with oven. 

2. Balance similar to the one shown in Exercise A-7. 

3. Soil auger and spade. 

4. Small equipment, such as sample cans, glass tumblers, 

tin cans, wrapping paper, cheese cloth and twine. 



vi SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

A supply of clean sand, and also some loam, clay and 
muck soil should be secured in the fall. This material should 
be dried, pulverized, and passed through a sieve with dne- 
eighth-inch mesh, to remove stones and sticks. 

The exercises are intended to furnish sufficient material 
for one period per week throughout the year or two periods 
per week for a half year. Although they are arranged in 
logical order, it is not necessary that the exercises should 
be taken up in the exact sequence in which they occur 
in the text. Indeed, it will be necessary for the teacher 
to vary the arrangement in order to adapt the study to 
the season and to the facilities of the school. 

A small working library should form a part of the 
equipment. For a study of soils this library should include 
several elementary books on soils, a collection of Farmers' 
Bulletins from the United States Department of Agriculture 
and the pubHcations of the State Experiment Station. 

While much of the material in the text is original, the 
writer has drawn freely from all sources for suggestions 
and illustrative material. Some of the illustrations have 
been adapted from the text-books and much material has 
been taken from the publications of the Agricultural 
Extension Department. The author wishes to make espe- 
cial acknowledgment of the helpful suggestions of former 
Superintendent A. B. Graham and Mr. Clark S. Wheeler 
of the Agricultural Extension Department of the Ohio 

State University. 

A. G. McCall. 
Department of Agronomy, 
Ohio State University, 
June, 1915. 



CONTENTS 



EXERCISE PAGE 

ALA Study of the Formation of Soils 1 

A 2. To Study the Composition of Soils 4 

A 3. To Study the Groups of Individual Soil Particles 6 

A 4. To Compare the Surface Soil with the Subsoil 8 

A 5. To Study the Relative Productiveness of Soil and Subsoil. . 10 

A 6. To Study the Individual Soil Particles 12 

A 7. To Determine the Amount of Organic Matter in Different 

Soils 14 

A 8. To Determine the Pore Space in Soils 17 

A 9. To Determine the Weight of Soil per Cubic Foot 20 

A 10. To Study Soil Granulation 22 

A 11. To Study the Effect of Freezing and Thawing upon Soil 

Granulation 23 

A 12. To Show That Some Soils Can Hold More Water Than 

Others 25 

A 13. To Show That Plants Give Off Moisture through Their 

Leaves 27 

A 14. To Show the Effect of Soil Air upon Plant Growth 29 

A 15. To Show How the Temperature of the Soil is Affected by the 

Slope 31 

A 16. To Study the Necessity for Soil Drainage 33 

A 17. A Study of Warm and Cold Soils 36 

A 18. To Study the Operation of Tile Drains 38 

A 19. A Study of Soil Temperature 40 

A 20. To Demonstrate the Movement of Water in the Soil 42 

A 21. To Compare the Movement of Water through Different 

Soils 44 

A 22. To Show the Effect of a Loose Surface upon the Rate at 

which the Rain Will Soak into the Soil 46 

A 23. To Study the Forms of Soil Moisture 48 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 

exercise; page 

A 24. To Study the Capillary Movement of Soil Moisture 51 

A 25. To Show the Effect of Plowing Under Coarse Material 

such as Manure, Green Cover Crops or Clods 53 

A 26. To Show the Effect of a Mulch in Preventing the Loss of 

Moisture 54 

A 27. To Study the Water Loss from Cultivated, Uncultivated 

and Mulched Soil Surfaces 56 

A 28. To Show the Effect of Drainage upon Soil Temperature. ... 59 

A 29. To Show the Influence of Color upon Soil T emperature .... 61 

A 30. To Show the Effect of Lime upon the Soil . 63 

A 31. To Study the Need of the Soil for Lime 66 

A 32. To Study the Adaptability of Soils to Crops 69 

A 33. To Study the Plow 71 

A 34. To Study Plant Roots and Their Relation to Soil Manage- 
ment , 73 

A 35. To Study the Roots of Legumes. . 75 



FIELD AND LABORATOliY STUDIES OF SOILS 



EXERCISE A-1. A STUDY OF THE FORMATION OF 

SOILS. 

Equipment: This exercise is based upon the pupil's 
own observations rather than upon laborator}^ work. Any 




Fig. 1. — The Kock may Lie but a Few Inches below the Surface. 

natural formations in the neighborhood, which are illus- 
trative of soil-making processes, should be visited by the 
class. Each pupil should write an account of the trip, 
including a discussion of the questions given below. 



2 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

Questions: 1. Does solid rock come to the surface 
at your home? 

2. Name a place where you know the depth at which 
sohd rock is found. 

3. Does your home well reach the rock? 

4. At what depth? 

5. Compare the shape of stones found in streams with 
that of crushed stone. How do you account for any 
difference? 

Discussion: Under the soil in any field is sohd rock. 
Sometimes this rock is very deep and again it may lie 
but a few inches below the surface. The soil also was 
once large rocks. It was made fine as we see it by natural 
agencies working through millions of years. These agencies 
are still at work and ma}^ often be observed. Water fills 
the crack in a large stone, freezes and bursts the stone 
apart. Exposed ledges of stone heated during the day 
and cooled at night for several years finally crumble. The 
roots of trees force themselves between the layers of rock 
and split them apart. Every little stream rolls and wears 
pebbles, grinding them finer and finer, finally forming soil. 

An examination of almost any soil shows that it con- 
tains not only fine rock particles, but also plant and animal 
remains. This organic matter may be found in the soil in 
all stages of decay, and constitutes the most important 
body of material present in the soil. It furnishes nitrogen, 
which is an important plant nutrient, and enables the 
soil to absorb and retain moisture. 



A STUDY OF THE FORMATION OF SOILS 




Ph 



o 

bC 

"> 

o 



03 

o 



bC 

o 






EXERCISE A-2. TO 



STUDY THE COMPOSITION 
SOILS. 



01 



Equipment: Spade or soil auger; two pieces of oil- 
cloth or heavy wrapping paper sixteen inches square; 
two slender bottles; tablespoon. 

Method: By means of the spade or soil auger, secure 
a sample each of a sandy soil and a heavy clay. Place a 
tablespoonful of each soil in separate bottles and fill each 
about two-thirds full with clear water. Shake each bottle 





Sandy Soil. 



Heavy Clay Soil. 



for one minute and allow to settle for five minutes. Ob- 
serve carefully the layers in each bottle, the large particles 
at the bottom and the finest material at the top. Use the 
bottles shown above to indicate what you see. 

Discussion: Soils are composed of fine rock particles 



TO STUDY THE COMPOSITION OF SOILS 5 

that have resulted from the breaking and grinding of 
large rocks, to which has been added some organic material 
which has been formed by the decay of plant and animal 
remains. All of the light-colored rock particles in the 
bottles are quite similar except as to size. The dark 
material at the surface or floating in the water is organic 
matter which may be removed from the soil by burning. 
Both classes of material are essential to the growth of 
plants, the rock particles furnishing the mineral food 
elements and the organic matter the nitrogen. The organic 
matter also increases the moisture-holding capacity of the 
soil. 



EXERCISE A-3. TO STUDY THE GROUPS OF INDI- 
VIDUAL SOIL PARTICLES. 

Equipment: Four beakers or tumblers; samples of 
clay and sandy soil. 

Method: Make fine and dry a small quantity of 
each of the two kinds of soil. Put three tablespoonfuls 
of the clay soil in one tumbler or beaker, and a like amount 
of the sandy soil in the other. Fill each one half full 
with water. Taking the tumblers or beakers one at a 
time, proceed as follows: shake gently for four minutes, 
let stand one minute and pour off into another tumbler 
all the water possible without losing the settlings. The 
settlings are the sand. Allow the water poured off to 
stand one hour until a distinct layer of settlings can be 
seen at the bottom. Now pour off and discard the clouded 
water. This muddy water contains clay so fine that it will 
not settle. The material which has settled in the second 
glass is silt. 

Questions: (1) About what proportion of the sandy 
soil is silt? 

(2) About what proportion of the clay soil is silt? 

Discussion: Soils are classified according to the fine- 
ness of the rock particles which they contain. A soil 
which contains a large proportion of coarse particles is 
called a sandy soil. One which contains a large propor- 
tion of fine particles is called a clay soil. No soil is made 

6 



GROUPS OF INDIVIDUAL SOIL PxVRTIULES 7 

up wholly of clay or of sand particles. All soils contain 
a certain per cent of each of these groups of fine particles. 
The coarser sandy soil drains more rapidly, warms up 
more quickly in the spring and is, therefore, better suited 
to early garden or truck crops. Clay soil dries out more 
slowly, and for this reason it is capable of furnishin<>" water 
to the crop during the hot dry summer months, especially 
if it contains a large amount of organic matter. 



EXERCISE A-4. TO COMPARE THE SURFACE SOIL 
WITH THE SUBSOIL. 

Equipment: Soil auger or spade; piece of oilcloth 

or heavy paper sixteen inches 
square. 

Method: With a spade dig a 
narrow trench a foot deep. Make 
one side of the trench smooth and 
note the line at the bottom of plow 
depth. Examine a handful of soil 
above and below the line and fill 
out the following table, comparing 
the two: 





Color. 


Moisture. 


Firmness. 


Surface soil . 








Subsoil 









Fig. 3.— Soil Auger Made 
by Welding a Three-foot 
Length of Wrought Iron 
Gas-pipe onto the Shank 
of a H-inch Wood Au- 
ger. Additional lengths 
may be added as desired. 

Discussion : 



Observe the line between the 
surface soil and the subsoil wherever 
the earth has been cut into, either 
by a stream or an artificial grade. 
There is usually a distinct difference 
in color between the surface soil and 
the subsoil. 
If the soil contained nothing more than 
8 



SURFACE SOIL AND SUBSOIL 9 

fine particles of rock there would be little difference between 
the surface soil and the subsoil. After the rocks were 
made fine, plants began to grow and by their death and 
decay they have added to the soil the dark-colored material 
which we call organic matter or humus. As the stems 
and leaves of plants fall on the ground and decay they 
are worked into the soil. Thus the surface soil is made 
to contain large quantities of decaying plants, while the 
subsoil contains but little of this material. This is the 
chief difference between the two. These decaying plants 
are an important addition to the soil. They add nitrogen 
and make the soil capable of holding more moisture. 



EXERCISE A-5. TO STUDY THE RELATIVE PRODUC- 
TIVENESS OF SOIL AND SUBSOIL. 

Equipment: Two flower pots or quart cans; wheat 
seed; soil and subsoil from the same place. 

Method: Fill one pot with moist surface soil, the other 
with moist subsoil, and plant six grains of wheat in each. 
Keep the pots watered and compare the growth of plants 
from time to time. 

Discussion: Why are washed hillsides and the high 
points in the fields usually less productive than the level 
land and the lower levels? Steep land should be cultivated 
across the slopes and should be kept covered with some 
crop in order to prevent the washing away of the surface 
soil. Deep plowing is often desirable to increase the depth 
of the surface soil. If the soil has always been plowed 
shallow it will be better to plow only an inch or two deeper 
each year until the desired depth is reached, than to plow 
deep the first year. Why? Observe the growth of corn 
or wheat in the " dead furrow " between the lands. 

While the plowing up of the subsoil in the humid regions 
frequently results in a decreased productiveness, the soil 
and the deeper layers in the arid regions may be mixed 
without injury. In these dry sections good crops are fre- 
quently grown where the top soil has been entirely removed 
in the preparation of the land for irrigation. 

10 



PRODUCTIVENESS OF SOIL AND SUBSOIL 11 




Fig. 4. — A Convenient Soil Bin, Mounted upon a Cupboard. The 
bins are filled from the top, the soil being removed from the 
open throat at the bottom. A sloping board just above the 
opening directs the soil back and prevents it from escaping 
faster that it is used. 



EXERCISE A-6. TO STUDY THE INDIVIDUAL SOIL 

PARTICLES. 

Equipment: Two tumblers; tablespoon; three large 
1 leakers or quart cans; samples of sand and clay soils. 

Method : (a) Put a tablespoonf ul of sand in one tumbler 
and the same quantity of clay in the other. Fill each with 
water and after thorough shaking, allow the soils to settle. 
Which settles the more rapidly? 

When a swiftly flowing stream carrying material in sus- 
pension is checked, which particles are first deposited? 
Find an example of the sorting power of flowing water in 
your neighborhood. 

(b) A day or two before the class is to meet put three 
or four tablespoonfuls of sandy loam soil in a beaker or 
can and nearly fill the vessel with water. Shake at inter- 
vals for one day and finally after thorough shaking allow 
to settle one hour and pour off into another beaker (or 
can) the muddy water down to within one inch of the 
bottom. Allow to stand for one minute, again pour off 
the muddy water and evaporate each separation to dry- 
ness on a stove. When dry, examine the material in 
each can; the last residue is sand, the second is silt, and 
the first separation is clay. Moisten a little of each and 
rub between the thumb and finger. Which ones are sticky 
and which fall apart easily? 

12 



TO STUDY THE INDIVIDUAL SOIL PARTICLES 13 

If a compound microscope is available, examine each 
separation and make a drawing of a few grains from each. 
Note that the soil consists of fine rock particles and dark 
humus or organic material. 



EXERCISE A-7. TO DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF 
ORGANIC MATTER IN DIFFERENT SOILS. 

Equipment: Balance; small porcelain or tin dishes; 
soil samples; gas burner or alcohol stove. 

Method: Place a teaspoonful of fine dry soil in a 
dish. Put the dish on the left-hand pan of the balance 




JTetal Tube 



ttle or Can 



Fig. 5. — Small Alcohol Stove Made from an Ink Bottle or Oil Can. 



and add weights to balance it. Now heat the sample over 
the flame until all the organic matter has been consumed. 
Take care that the same weights are on the right-hand 
pan of the balances and return the dish containing the soil 
to the left-hand pan. 

How does this weight of the sample compare with its 
previous weight? How do you account for this difference? 
Add dry leaves or cut straw until the pans are again in 
balance. What does this added material represent? 

Discussion: Soils vary greatly in the amount of or- 

14 



OEGANIC MATTER IN DIFFERENT SOILS 15 





Fig. 6.— Two Types of Alcohol Stoves, which may be Made to Take 
the Place of Gas Burners. 




Fig. 7. — A Good Balance Costing about $12.00. 



16 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

ganic matter which they contain. Muck soils are composed 
almost entirely of organic matter, while some sandy 
soils contain comparatively little dead plant and animal 
remains. Whenever the supply of organic matter in a 
soil is low the crop yields are small. Applying manure 
and plowing under clover are good ways of increasing the 
amount of organic matter in the soil. 

Note. — A very good balance can be purchased for about $12.00. 
Small dishes should be about two or three inches in diameter. If 
tin, they must be without soldered seams. 

Gas or alcohol stoves may be purchased at a small cost, or a very 
good alcohol lamp may be constructed in the laboratory without 
cost, by following the diagram shown on page 14. 



EXERCISE. A-8. 



TO DETERMINE THE PORE SPACE 
IN SOILS. 



Equipment: Dry samples of sandy soil and clay soil; 
graduated bottle or cylinder; a quart can or milk bottle. 

Method: (1) Fill the can or bottle to within one-half 
inch of the top with the dry sand and compact by tapping 





Fig. 8. — ^A Graduated Bottle or Cylinder is a Necessary Part of the 

Laboratory Equipment. 

the can hghtly on the desk top three times; (2) fill the 
graduated bottle or cylinder to the top mark with water; 
(3) carefully pour the water from the graduated vessel onto 
the top of the soil in the can and continue to do so until 
the water stands level with the top of the sand; (4) record 

17 



18 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

the amount of water used. This represents the amount 
of water necessary to fill all of the open space in the. sand. 
Repeat the above operations, using the sample of clay soil. 
Report your observations in the following table: 





Cu. Centimeters 
of Soil Used. 


Cu. Centimeters 
of Water Used. 


Per Cent of 
Pore Space. 


Sandy soil 












Clay soil 














Fig. 9. — Spring-board Compactor Used to Secure Uniform Packing 
of the Soil. The can or tube of soil is placed at the middle of 
the board and the weight on the standard to the left is dropped 
a definite number of times from a fixed point. 

Discussion: The large amount of water which a can 
will hold after it is already filled with dry soil serves to 
bring out the fact that only about half of the soil is occu- 



TO DETERMINE THE PORE SPACE IN SOILS 19 

pied b}^ the soil particles, the remainder being occupied by 
water when the soil is very wet or by air when it is per- 
fectly dry. For the best growth of crops the space not 
occupied by the soil particles should be divided about 
equally between water and air. If the space becomes 
entirely filled with water, crops will not thrive, since their 
roots will not be able to get the air necessary for their 
growth. Sandy soil has larger spaces between the indi- 
vidual soil particles, but the total amount of pore space is 
less in the sandy soil than in the clay soil. 



EXERCISE A-9. TO DETERMINE THE WEIGHT OF 
SOIL PER CUBIC FOOT. 

Equipment: Balance; brass cylinder* or quart can; 
samples of sandy loam and clay soils. 

Method: Fill the quart can with the dry sandy loam 
and compact by tapping it lightly on the desk four times. 




Fig. 10. — A very good Balance of this Type can be Purchased for 

about $8.00. 

Stroke off the soil level with the top of the can and weigh. 
Subtract the weight of the empty can. 

Calculate the capacity of the can in cubic inches and 
from the weight of the dry soil determine the weight of 
one cubic foot. 

* Brass cylinders for this exercise may be purchased from labora- 
tory supply houses at a cost of about $1.00 each. 

20 



WEIGHT OF SOIL PER CUBIC FOOT 



21 



Calculate the weight of an acre of this soil to the depth 
of one foot. This will give the weight of an acre-foot. 

Repeat the determination for the clay soil and record 
the results in both cases in the following table: 





Weight of Can 

of Soil in 

Grams or 

Ounces. 


Capacity of Can 

in Cubic 

Centimeters 

or Inches. 


Weight of a 
Cubic Foot. 


Weight of an 
Acre Foot. 


Sandy loam. . 










Clay.. 











Discussion: The weight of a given volume of soil 
depends very largely upon the amount of organic matter 
present — the greater the proportion of organic matter the 
lighter the weight of the soil. The extent to which the 
soil is compacted also influences the volume weight. 



EXERCISE A-10. TO STUDY SOIL GRANULATION. 

Equipment; Three shallow pans; sample of heavy 
clay soil. 

Method: Fill each of three pans nearly level full with 
dry clay soil. To the first pan add all the water which 
it will holdj continuing to pour on water as it soaks in, 
while working the soil with the fingers or with a stick. 
Over the second pan sprinkle one-half cup of water. Leave 
the third pan untreated. Place all three pans near a 
stove or in the sun, and dry thoroughly. Compare the 
size of the lumps of soil in the pans to which water was 
added. Which crumbles more easily between the fingers? 
Which is more like a field in good tilth? What happened 
to the first pan? 

Discussion: The fine rock particles in a pile of clean 
sand always remain separate, but the very, very fine par- 
ticles of rock which form the soil stick together to form 
crumbs or granules. When these granules are comparatively 
small and easily crushed, the soil is said to be well granulated. 
Large hard granules are called clods. When a large amount 
of water is added to a clay soil, the soil becomes " puddled " 
or " run together," and clods are formed. Similarly, if a 
wet clay soil is compacted by the feet of men or horses, 
or if it is plowed when too wet, hard clods are formed. 

22 



EXERCISE A-11. TO STUDY THE EFFECT OF FREEZING 
AND THAWING UPON SOIL GRANULATION. 

Equipment: Shallow pans; some clay soil. 
Method: Using heavy clay, make up two mud balls 
to about the consistency of putty. Place one on a shelf 




Fig. 11. — Running Water, Freezing and Thawing, and the Roots of 
Trees are Powerful Agencies in the Breaking Down of Rock to 
Form Soil. 



to dry and the other outside on the window sill where 
it will be frozen. Arrange to have the latter alternately 
freeze and thaw each day for a week or longer. When 
both are dry crush them with the hands. Which breaks 
the more easily? 

23 



24 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

Discussion: The freezing of water is one of the natural 
agencies which plays an important part in the breaking 
up of the jocks to make soil. This same force can be 
utilized to good advantage every year by the farmer through 
the practice of fall and winter plowing. Heavy clay soils 
by this practice can be made more loose and friable. Ex- 
posure of the plowed land to the action of freezing and 
thawing is especially desirable where the soil has become 
hard and cloddy, as the result of plowing it too wet, or by 
the trampling of livestock. The hard clods absorb water 
which, on freezing, expands and bursts them apart. 



EXERCISE A-12. TO SHOW THAT SOME SOILS CAN 
HOLD MORE WATER THAN OTHERS. 

Equipment: Four funnels; muslin or cheese cloth; 
scissors; well rotted manure; four graduated cylinders or 
bottles; funnel holder; sand; loam, and clay soil. 

Method: Plug each funnel lightly on the inside with a 
piece of cotton or cloth. Fill the funnels as follows: (1) 
sand, (2) loam, (3) clay, (4) one-half sand and one-half 
manure. Arrange the funnels in the rack with their stems 
in the mouths of the bottles. Very slowly pour over each 
funnel exactly eight ounces (one-half pint) of water. Allow 
to stand till the drip ceases and read the amount of water 
in each bottle. Record these readings and subtract them 
from the amount poured into each funnel. What do 
these differences represent? 



Mixture number 


1 


2 


3 


4 






Amount poured in 










Amount in bottle 










Amount held in soil 











Discussion : The capacity of soils to hold water depends 
upon the size of the particles and the amount of organic 
matter. In clay soils it is increased by granulation. Clay 

25 



26 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

soils can hold more water because the individual spaces 
between the particles are smaller and the total amount of 
space is larger, than in other soils. Muck and clay soils 
will hold the largest amount of water and sandy soils the 





-Cheesecloth 



-Perforated 
bottom 



Fig. 12. — Funnels and Gradu- 
ated Bottles Used to Show 
that Some Soils can Retain 
more Water than Others. 



Fig. 13. — Brass C.ylinder Used to 
Measure the Water-holding Ca- 
pacity of Soils. 



least. The supply of water is the most important single 
factor in the growth of plants. Consequently, the extent 
to which different soils retain moisture deserves careful 
study. 



EXERCISE A-13. TO SHOW THAT PLANTS GIVE OFF 
MOISTURE THROUGH THEIR LEAVES. 

Equipment: Small potted plant; wide-mouthed jar; 
piece of cardboard; wax.* 

Method: Use a plant 
which is at least three or 
four inches high and grow- 
ing in a flower pot or 
tomato can. Cut a slit in 
the cardboard from the 
middle of one side to the 
center, and place the card- 
board around the plant- 
Seal up the slit in the card- 
board with wax. Now in- 
vert the glass jar over the 
plant and place in a sunny 
window. How do the drops 
of water get into the glass 
jar? 

Discussion: Plants are 
constantly giving off water 
from their leaves. The 
largest amount is evap- 

* Beeswax, paraffin, or graft- 
ing wax will be found quite satis- 
factory. 




Fig. 14. — Potted Plant Arranged to 
Show that Plants Give off Moist- 
ure through their Leaves. If 
placed in a sunny window, drops 
of moisture soon collect on the in- 
side of the can. 

27 



28 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

orated in the hot sun and when an abundance of water 
is supphed to the roots. Sometimes in a drouth more 
water is evaporated from the leaves than is being taken in 
by the roots. If this is continued for some time the plant 
wilts. This reminds us that the water in plants gives the 
soft stems and leaves their stiffness. All the food which 
the plant takes from the soil must first be dissolved in 
water. It is estimated that 900 tons of water are evap- 
orated by each acre of corn plants during the growing season. 



EXERCISE A-14. TO SHOW THE EFFECT OF SOIL AIR 
UPON PLANT GROWTH. 

Equipment: Two tumblers, or quart cans; several 
grains of corn. 

Method: Fill two tumblers within a half inch of the 
top with rich soil. Plant in each three kernels of corn. 
Water tumbler No. 1 only enough each day to keep the 
soil moist. Keep water in the second tumbler so that it 
stands a little above the surface of the soil. Fill in the 
following blanks: 



No. 1. 


No. 2. 


Date of planting 






Date first plant up 






Ave. height 1 wk. after coming up 







What kept the corn in one tumbler from growing as 
well as that in the other? What became of the air in the 
soil in tumbler No. 2? 

Discussion: For the best growth of crops the space 
not occupied by soil particles should be divided equally 
between air and water. If this space becomes entirely 
filled with water, crops will not thrive, since their roots 
will not be able to get the air necessary for plant growth. 

29 



30 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

Some plants, such as the cypress and the water Hly, have 
special structures which enable them to obtain air from 
the water while their roots are entirely submerged,- but 
our common field plants do not have this abihty, 



EXERCISE A-15. TO SHOW HOW THE TEMPERATURE 
OF THE SOIL IS AFFECTED BY THE SLOPE. 

Equipment: Three boxes, 6''X12''X12"; three ther- 
mometers;* soil sample. 

Method: Nmnber the boxes 1, 2, and 3, fill with the 
same kind of soil and set them in the sunhght, side by 




Fig. 15. — Arrangement of Boxes to Show the Effect of Slope upon 
the Temperature of the Soil. 

side. Arrange the boxes so that No. 1 will stand level, 
No. 2 slope toward the south (four inches slope to the 
foot) and No. 3 slope toward the north at the same angle. 

* The thermometers should be tested by placmg the three side by 
side in a tumbler of water and after stirring the water for a few minutes 
compare the readings on the thermometer scales. If they do not read 
the same a suitable correction must be applied. 

31 



32 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

Place a thermometer in each with the bulb covered with 
soil. Take readings every two hours during the day. 



TEMPERATURE 


RECORD 








Hour 






















South slope 


















North slope 


















Level 























List the three surfaces in the order of their temperature. 
What location would you seek for an early garden plot? 

Discussion: The temperature of the soil is affected by 
the slope, because in one case a given amount of the sun's 
heat must warm a larger area of soil than in another. 
When the slope is towards the sun the soil stands more 
nearly at right angles to the sun's rays, but when the sur- 
face is level or slopes away from the sun, it is inclined away 
from the direct rays. The same amount of heat must then 
warm a larger area. This increase in area may be shown 
by sawing off a board at right angles and then at an obtuse 
angle, and measuring the cross-section each time. 



EXERCISE A-16. 



TO STUDY THE NECESSITY FOR SOIL 
DRAINAGE. 



Equipment: Two one-quart tin cans; a graduated 
cylinder or bottle; a one-foot rule; several grains of corn; 
a sample of loa.'ii soil. 

Method: Make eight holes in one can by driving a 
nail through the bottom. Stand this can on blocks in a 
saucer. Fill both cans with loam to within one inch of 
the top and plant three grains of corn in each. Each day, 
pour water upon the surface of the soil in the tight can 
until it stands at the surface, noting the amount used each 
time. At the same time add the same amount of water to 
the other can, using the graduated bottle to determine 
the amount added. As soon as the corn appears above the 
surface measure its height every other day, recording the 
average height of the three plants in each can. The height 
may be regarded as the distance from the surface of the 
soil to the tip of the uppermost leaf. 





Average Height of Plants on the Following Dates: 
























Can without holes . 






















Can with holes. . . . 























From this exercise what do you conclude as to the 

33 



34 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

relative length of time which would be required for corn 
to come up in a drained and in an undrained field? 




Fig. 16. — Corn Planted the Same Day. Tumbler of soil to the 
left kept saturated while the one to the right is only about 
half-saturated with water, 



What effect does drainage have upon the air in the soil? 
Discussion: The rain which falls on the fields would 



TO STUDY THE NECESSITY FOR SOIL DRAINAGE 35 

in time completely saturate the soil if no drainage were 
possible. The more nearly level the land the more readily 
does the rain pass into it. During a long-continued rain 
the water soaks into the soil until, like a blotter or a sponge, 
it can hold no more. Then the excess of water will flow 
over the surface to the lowest points in the field and finally 
join the creeks and rivers which are a part of Nature's 
great drainage system. 

The water which has soaked into the soil gradually 
passes into the subsoil and eventually finds its way to the 
streams. If the soil is a loam with an open subsoil, this 
natural drainage will be sufficient. However, in heavy 
loams and in clay soils Nature does her work too slowly 
to be of immediate benefit. Then it is that we should 
supply artificial drainage in the form of tile to carry away 
the surplus water more promptly and thus assist Nature. 



EXERCISE A-17. 



A STUDY OF " WARM " AND " COLD " 
SOILS. 



two 



Equipment: Dry loam soil; two thermometers; 
flower pots or quart cans; a beaker or tumbler. 

Method: (a) Tie a piece of muslin cloth around the 
bulb of one thermometer and suspend it over a tumbler 
with the lower end of the cloth dipping into the water, 
but the bulb one inch above the surface. Suspend the 
other thermometer in the air near the tumbler. At the 
end of ten minutes read both thermometers and take the 
temperature of the water. Record as follows: 





Degrees. 


Temperature of the air 




Temperature of the wet bulb . . 




Temperature of the water 





Why is the temperature of the wet bulb lower than that 
of the air or water? 

(b) Fill two flower pots with the dry soil and add 
sufl[icient water to one to thoroughly wet the soil. Insert 
the bulb of one thermometer to the depth of one-half inch 
into the wet soil and the other to the same depth into the 
dry soil. Make a reading of both thermometers at the end 
of fifteen minutes. 

36 



A STUDY OF "WARM" AND "COLD" SOILS 37 

Discussion: Tile-drained soils and sandy soils with 
good natural drainage warm up more rapidly in the spring 
than poorly drained soils. Why? Sandy land is com- 
monly spoken of as a warm soil, while clay is regarded as 
a cold soil. Well-drained sandy soil is used for the growing 
of early truck crops. Why? 

Plowing or stirring the soil in the early spring hastens 
evaporation and as soon as the surface becomes dry the 
soil begins to warm up rapidly. 



EXERCISE A-18. TO STUDY THE OPERATION OF TILE 

DRAINS. 

Equipment: Drainage apparatus; dipper; glass tumbler; 
sample of sandy loam soil. 

Method: Fill the drainage apparatus to within an inch 



Fig. 17. — To the Left, a Tin Can Arranged to Show the Operation 
of Tile Drains. To the Right is the Graham-McCall Apparatus. 

of the top with sandy soil. If a drainage apparatus is 
not available, a tin can may be used after having punched 
two holes in the side as shown in the diagram. 

Slowly pour water over the surface of the soil and note 
the result. 

To operate the Graham-McCall apparatus, fill the ves- 

38 



TO STUDY THE OPERATION OF TILE DRAINS 39 

sel with soil and pour on water at regular intervals, giving 
it time to soak into the soil. The water, instead of coming 
out at the tubes, will pass downward through the soil 
until the solid bottom is reached, when a water-table of 
free Hquid will be formed at a level indicated by the height 
of water in the glass stand-pipe. When the free water has 
risen to the first opening it will pass outside the vessel, 
thus proving that a tile drain placed as low as soil con- 
ditions will permit removes free water before one placed 
nearer the surface. 

Discussion: The lower tube in the drainage apparatus 
or the lower hole in the can represents a deep tile drain, 
while the upper tube or hole represents a shallow drain. 
The object of the tile is to prevent the rise of the ground 
water surface which interferes with the root development 
of the plants. 



EXERCISE A-19. A STUDY OF SOIL TEMPERATURE. 

Equipment: Two or more thermometers; a soil augpr. 

Method; For this exercise select a bright day about 
the time spring plowing begins. Go to a nearby field 
and take the temperature by burying the bulb of the ther- 
mometer to the depth of three inches. To avoid breaking 
the thermometer, first make a hole in the soil to the proper 
depth with a small stick or lead pencil and then insert 
the thermometer. The reading should not be taken until 
after the thermometer has been in contact with the soil 
about fifteen minutes. While waiting to make this read- 
ing, bore a hole to the depth of three feet and lower the 
other thermometer until the bulb rests on the bottom. 
At the end of fifteen minutes the thermometer should be 
drawn to the top and read immediately. Take the tem- 
perature at the three-inch depth, (1) of a north and of a 
south slope; (2) of unplowed and freshly plowed land; (3) of 
grass land and a cultivated field. Record all temperatures 
and discuss the results. 





Reading of 
Thermomtter, 


North slope 




South slope 




Unplowed field 




Plowed field 




Grass land 




Cultivated field 





40 



A STUDY OF SOIL TEMPERATURE 41 

Discussion: Early in the spring the surface soil is 
usually cooler than the deeper layers; south slopes are 
warmer than north slopes; cultivated fields are warmer 
than uncultivated. Why? 



EXERCISE A-20. TO DEMONSTRATE THE MOVEMENT 
OF WATER IN THE SOIL. 

Equipment: Two tumblers; a saucer; a strip of 
blotting paper, and some fine dry soil. 

Method: Fill one of the tumblers with water and 
suspend above it the strip of blotting paper with the lower 
end dipping into the water. Fill the second tumbler with 
fine dry soil and sprinkle three or four spoonfuls of water 
over the surface. Make a mound of dry soil in the center 
of the saucer and pour water into the saucer until it stands 
one-half inch deep. 

Describe what happened in each case. 

Discussion: The force which causes the water to 
move uphill in the blotting paper and in the saucer of soil 
is called capillarity and the water which moves in this 
way is known as capillary water. The capillary movement 
of the water is usualty upward, but when a light shower 
falls on the surface of a dry soil the movement will be 
downward and laterally as shown in the second tumbler. 

During the growing season, water is moving by capillarity 
from the deeper layers of soils toward the surface. If 
allowed to do so, much of the moisture stored in the soil 
will pass on up through the surface layer and be evaporated 
without having been of any service to the plants growing 
in the soil. To prevent this loss we practice shallow, fre- 
quent cultivation, which keeps a protective covering of 
loose soil over the surface. 

42 



FROM 1 / 




=g^ WATER STORED IN 50/L ^ ^ WATER STORED IN SOIL e== 



Fig. 18. — Movement of Soil Moisture. To the right the rain is soaking into the siil 
It passes down into it by gravity and is stored for future use. During dry 
weather the water moves upward by capillarity to supply the plants as shown 
to the left. On one side of the plant a mulch prevents the loss of moisture, 
while on the other side the water is being lost by evaporation at the crusted sur- 
face. The moisture saved by the mulch is free to e iter the plant with dissolved 
material, which it leaves behind as it evaporates from the leaf surface. 

43 



EXERCISE A-21. TO COMPARE THE MOVEMENT OF 
WATER THROUGH DIFFERENT SOILS. 

Equipment: Four tall brass cylinders or tin cans with 
perforated bottoms; four graduated bottles; cheesecloth; 
samples of sand, muck and clay soil. 

Method: Number the four cylinders or cans and cover 
the bottom of each with a layer of cheese cloth. After 
supporting them over the graduated bottles, fill the cans 
to within one inch of the top, as follows: No. 1, sand; 
No. 2 mixture of half sand and half muck; No. 3 clay; 
No. 4 mixture of half clay and half sand. 

Taking each can separately, slowly pour water on the 
surface of the soil and note the time required for the water 
to come through and begin to drip from the bottom. 
Continue to pour on water and measure the amount 
which comes through during the next ten minutes. If the 
sand is coarse it may be necessary to shorten the time 
to one minute for that material. 





No. 1. 


No. 2. 


No. 3. 


No. 4. 


Time to come through. 










Amount in 10 minutes. 











What kind of soil is most likely to drain out naturally? 
What kind of soil requires tile drainage? 

44 



WATER THROUGH DIFFERENT SOILS 45 

Discussion: After a rain, when the capillary or film 
capacity of the soil has been reached, the free or gravi- 
tational water percolates down to the subsoil and runs 
away. The rate at which this free water gets out of the 
zone of the roots is called the rate of 'percolation. This 
rate depends upon the fineness of the particles, the degree 
of granulation, and the content of organic matter. In 
soils in which the particles are comparatively fine and the 
spaces between the particles correspondingly small, the 
percolation is slow. When a fine soil is well granulated, 
the larger spaces between the granules permit a more rapid 
flow. This is desirable, since, to have the soil saturated 
long is injurious to crops. On the other hand in some 
sandy soils percolation may be so rapid as to cause leach- 
ing, i.e., carrying away of the plant nutrients. The addi- 
tion of organic matter tends to prevent leaching. 



EXERCISE A-22. TO SHOW THE EFFECT OF A LOOSE 
SURFACE UPON THE RATE AT WHICH THE RAIN 
WILL SOAK INTO THE SOIL. 

Equipment: Two quart cans; a graduate; sufficient 
moist garden or field soil to fill the two cans. 

Method: Fill the two cans to within one inch of the 
top with the moist soil. Firmly compact the surface of 
the soil in one can and leave the surface of the other loose. 
Pour an equal amount (4 ounces) of water on the surface 
of each and note the time it takes it to disappear into the 
soil. Which takes in the water more rapidly, the loose or 
the compacted surface? 





Time Required for Water 
to Disappear. 


Loose surface 




Compacted surface. . . 





Discussion: When rain falls upon the surface of a 
field a part of the water soaks into the soil and another 
part runs off the surface. If the surface is dry and hard, 
a very large part of the rain runs off and only a small quan- 
tity enters the soil. The part which runs off the surface 
is not only entirely lost to the crop, but it also washes the 
surface and carries away with it a large amount of plant 

46 



RATE AT WHICH RAIN WILL SOAK INTO SOIL 47 

food. Observe what happens when a hard rain falls 
on a loose, mellow garden, and compare with what takes 
place on a hard path during a heavy rain. Thrifty farmers 
try to keep their soil mellow and loose on the surface so 
that it will absorb and hold sufficient water to carry the 
plants through the dry, hot part of the season. Persistent 



/ 



t 

( 


! 

J 
/ 

) 

t 
i 


i 



Fig. 19. — This Soil should be Cultivated at Once to Prevent the 
Loss of Moisture through the Shrinkage Cracks. 

tillage, which keeps the surface loose, enables the rainfall 
to enter the soil easily. Frequent shallow cultivation also 
serves in a dry time to prevent the loss of moisture from 
below. The soil which is stirred forms a covering or dust 
mulch which protects the deeper soil and lessens the loss 
by evaporation at the surface, 



EXERCISE A-23. TO STUDY THE FORMS OF SOIL 

MOISTURE. 



.-^h^ 




Equipment:* Balances; drying oven; soil auger; sample 
boxes. 

Method : With the soil auger secure 
samples of soil at a depth of six, 
eighteen, and thirty inches. Transfer 
the samples at once to tight tin boxes 
with lids. As soon as possible weigh 
the boxes and contents. Remove the 
lids and let the soil dry in the air for 
one week, then weigh. Continue the 
drying until constant weight is at- 
tained. 

What does the loss in weight 
Fig. 20. — Soil Sample- represent? Does this soil still contain 

any moisture? 

Place the samples in an oven with 
the lids off the boxes and dry for two 
days. Weigh and record the weights. 

* The balance shown in Exercise 7 or the one shown in Exercise 
9 may be used. A one-burner gasoline or kerosene stove with a 
small baking oven may be used. The flame should be regulated to keep 
the temperature at about 105° C. or 212°-215° F. 

A soil auger may be purchased from an implement firm or it may be 
constructed by a local blacksmith by welding a length (three feet) of 
iron pipe onto the shank of a common 1| or l^-inch wood auger. 
Tin salve-boxes make very satisfactory soil containers. 

48 



case Provided with 
Seamless Tin Boxes 
for Use in Collecting 
Field Samples. 



TO STUDY THE FOEMS OF SOIL MOISTURE 49 

If the weight changed in the oven how do you account 
for the change? Fill out the table given at the end of 
the exercise and write over the fourth and fifth columns 
the name of the kind of soil moisture which each represents. 
What form of soil moisture is it that fills a post hole as soon 
as it is dug? Which sample contained the highest per cent 
of moisture. 



Sample. 


1 

Original 
Weight. 


2 
Air-dry 
Weight. 


3 

Oven-dry 

Weight. 


4 

Loss in 

Air. 


Loss in 
Oven. 


1 












2 












3 














Fig. 21. — A Gasoline Stove Oven, Galvanized Iron Trays, and Tin 
Dishes for Drying Soil Samples. 



50 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

Discussion: Moist soil as we find it under ordinary 
conditions in the field holds the water as a thin film around 
the soil grains. This form of moisture is given the name 
film moisture, because of the fact that it forms a film- over 
the surface of the tiny soil particles. This moisture is 
available for the use of the plants that may be growing in 
the soil. 

If a handful of this moist soil is spread on a board for 
several days and allowed to dry, it will have the appear- 
ance of containing no moisture at all. The film moisture 
will be gone, but the hygroscopic moisture will still be 
present. This form of moisture, which is not available to 
plants, varies with the moisture in the air and cannot be 
driven out without heating the soil. 

The third form in which moisture occurs in the soil is 
called free or gravitational water. This form is seen seep- 
ing out of the banks of rivers and smaller streams. 



EXERCISE A-24. TO STUDY THE CAPILLARY MOVE- 
MENT OF SOIL MOISTURE. 

Equipment: Four lamp chimneys; cheesecloth; twme; 
tray 1"X4''X12" ; rack to support chimneys; samples of 
clay, loam, and sandy soils; foot rule. 

Method: Tie a piece of cloth over the small end of each 
chimney. Number and fill them as follows: (1) sand, (2) 
loam, (3) clay, (4) half sand and half clay. Place the chim- 
neys in the rack and keep the pan filled with water. Meas- 
ure and record the height of the water in each, after a half 
hour, one hour, and every twenty-four hours for a week. 

Record your data as follows: 



No. 


^Hr. 


1 Hr. 


1 Day. 


2 Days. 


3 Days. 


4 Days. 


5 Days. 


6 Days. 


7 Days. 


1 




















2 




















3 




















4 





















In which kind of soil did the water rise fastest at first? 
In which did it finally stand highest? 
Does capillary moisture always move directly upward? 
Discussion: Water rises through the soil in the same 
way that oil rises in a lamp wick. Throughout the growing 

51 



52 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

season, and especially in dry weather when the level of 
standing water is many feet below the surface, plant roots 
are supplied by capillary moisture which is moving up 
through the soil. The depth from which water may be 




Fig. 22, — Lamp Chimneys may be Used to Show the Capillary Rise 

of Moisture. 



raised by capillary action depends upon the kind of soil. 
Clay soils bring water from a greater depth than coarser 
soils. Sanely soil is sometimes said to " burn out," because 
in a drouth it furnishes little or no water to the plant, 
although standing water is but a few feet below the surface. 



EXERCISE A-25. TO SHOW THE EFFECT OF PLOW- 
ING UNDER COARSE MATERIAL SUCH AS MANURE, 
GREEN COVER CROPS, OR CLODS. 

Equipment: Three lamp chimneys; rack to support 
chniineys; tray 1'X4''X12^^; cheese cloth; scissors; twine; 
sample of sandy loam soil; cut straw; soil lumps or clods. 

Method: Cover the small end of each lamp chimney 
with a piece of cloth and tie it on with the twine. Number 
and fill the tubes as follows: (1) when about two-thirds 
full add enough cut straw to make a layer one inch thick, 
and complete filling; (2) when two-thirds full add enough 
round hard clods to make a layer about one inch thick, and 
complete filhng; (3) fill with fine soil. Hang the tubes in 
the rack with their lower ends resting lightly on the bottom 
of the tray and fill the pan with water. At the end of four 
days note the height of the water in each tube. Since the 
same kind of soil was used in each tube would you not ex- 
pect the water to rise to the same height in each? Explain 
the cause for what you find. 

Discussion: When capillary water rises in the soil it 
passes from one tiny particle to another which lies next to 
it. If the particles are separated by a very wide space or 
by some loose substance the rise of water is stopped. This 
may happen when a heavy growth of green material like 
rye is plowed under. Harm will be prevented if the green 
material is thoroughly cut with a disc before being turned 
under and the furrows turned so as to lap and not lie flat. 

53 



EXERCISE A-26. TO SHOW THE EFFECT OF A MULCH 
IN PREVENTING THE LOSS OF MOISTURE AT 
THE SURFACE OF THE SOIL. 

Equipment: Balance; sample of soil ; dry sand or dust; 
dipper; shallow tray. 




Fig. 23. — Home-made Balance Used to Show the Effect of a Dry 

Earth Mulch. 



Method: Fill one can to within one inch of the top 
with moist soil and the other can to within two inches of 
the top with the same soil. Pour dry sand or dust over the 

54 



LOSS OF MOISTURE AT SURFACE OF THE SOIL 55 

surface of the second can to the depth of one inch. Place 
the cans on the scale pans or suspend them from the arms 
of the balance and adjust the amount of soil in the two cans 
until the system balances and the arms of the balance 
remain horizontal. 

After allowing the apparatus to stand over night, it 
will be found that the system is no longer balanced. The 
soil which was covered with the dust or sand has lost but 
Httle moisture, while the unprotected surface of the other 
soil has lost a much larger amount. The amount of water 
that must be added to the can with the exposed soil surface 
to restore the balance represents the moisture that has been 
saved by the protective covering of dust — the dry earth 
mulch. In using the home-made balance the bar should 
be held in a horizontal position while the water is being 
added. 

Discussion: Have you ever noticed how moist the soil 
is under a stone or a board even when the surrounding 
ground is quite dry? The stone or board has kept the air 
awaj^ from the surface of the soil and prevented evapora- 
tion. When shallow cultivation is practiced, the thin 
layer of stirred soil soon becomes very dry, but by keeping 
the air aw^ay it serves to prevent the deeper soil from losing 
its moisture by evaporation. This loose blanket or mulch, 
as it is called, also helps to absorb rainfall and to prevent 
it from running off the surface. 



EXERCISE A-27. TO STUDY THE WATER LOSS FROM 
CULTIVATED, UNCULTIVATED AND MULCHED SOIL 
SURFACES. 



Equipment: Three galvanized-iron cylinders; shallow 
Dan; table knife; a pair of scales having a capacity of fifty 

pounds; a small quantity of cut straw; 
a quantity of dry, sifted loam soil. 

Method: Number the three cylin- 
ders and fill each to within one inch 
of the top with the dry soil. Pour 
water into the jacket at the bottom 
until the soil appears moist at the 
surface. This will probably require 
several hours, but the experiment will 
need no attention during this time 
except to see that the water is re- 
plenished in the jackets from time to 
time. It is a good plan to start the 
exercise in the afternoon and allow 
the cylinders to stand over night or 
until the next period. 
After the water has reached the surface of the soil in 
all of the cylinders they should receive the following treat- 
ment : 

No. 1. Compact the surface. 

56 




Fig. 24. — Galvanized 
Iron Mulch Cylinder. 



WATER LOSS FROM MULCHED SOIL SURFACES 57 

No. 2. Remove two inches of soil and replace with cut 

straw. 
No. 3. Remove two inches of the surface and replace 
it in a loose condition. 
Care should be taken to have all of the surfaces at the 
same distance below the top of the cylinders. Why? The 
surface of No. 3 is to be removed to the shallow pan and 
mixed before it is returned to place. It should then be 
stirred occasionally to keep the surface in a loose condition. 
As soon as the mulches are in place, fill all of the water 
jackets to the same level and weigh each cylinder. Repeat 
the weighings every other day for a week and record the 
weights in the accompanying table: 



Cylin- 


Treatment. 


Weight of Cylinders and Soil. 


Total 
Water 
Loss. 


Tons 


der. 
No. 


First 
Day. 


Third 
Day. 


Fifth 
Day. 


Seventh 
Day. 


per 
Acre. 


1 


Compacted 














2 


Straw mulch .... 














3 


Loose soil mulch . 















Which cylinder lost the greatest amount of water by 
evaporation? 

How does the farmer and gardener make use of soil and 
straw mulches? 

Discussion: Any covering placed upon the surface of 
the soil to prevent or lessen evaporation of moisture is called 
a mulch. An artificial mulch is a covering of straw, leaves, 
sawdust or other material of a like nature. A natural mulch 



58 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

is the layer of loose soil produced by frequent shallow cul- 
tivations. 

Artificial mulches are sometimes used in gardens and in 
small truck patches, but in the large fields the natural 
mulch is the only practical means for preventing the escape 
of the moisture by evaporation at the surface of the soil. 



EXERCISE A-28. TO SHOW THE EFFECT OF DRAIN- 
AGE UPON SOIL TEMPERATURE. 

Equipment: Two one-quart tin cans; thermometer; 
loam soil. 

Method: Make several holes in the bottom of one can 
by driving a nail through it. Fill each can with the same 
kind of soil. Wet the soil in both cans thoroughly. Push 
the bulb of a thermometer one inch deep in each can and 
place in a sunny window. Record the temperature every 
two hours, continuing the readings on the second and third 





First Day. 


Second Day. 


Third Day. 


Time 





2 


4 


6 


8 





2 


4 


6 


8 





2 


4 


6 


8 


Can with holes 








Tight can 









How does the temperature of the soil affect the growth 
of crops. 

When is this most important? What would you do for 
a soil that is wet and cold? 

Discussion: If we were to place a pan of water and a 
pan of dry soil on a stove, we would find that it took longer 
to heat the water to a given temperature than the dry soil. 

59 



60 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

This is because the amount of heat required to raise the 
temperature of water is several times as great as that re- 
quired to raise the temperature of soil. Consequently, 
when any soil contains a large amount of water it is warmed 
more slowly than a well-drained soil, which has been relieved 
of its surplus moisture. 



EXERCISE A-29. TO SHOW THE INFLUENCE OF COLOR 
UPON SOIL TEMPERATURE. 

Equipment: Box 4"xl2''X24''; two thermometers; 
chalk dust; soot or lampblack ; twenty grains of corn. 

Method: Fill the box with moist soil and plant the 
corn in regular rows. Scatter chalk dust over one-half 
of the box and soot or lampblack over the other half to 
the depth of a quarter of an inch. Insert the bulb of a 
thermometer about one-half inch beneath the surface in 
the middle of each half of the box. On the first day read 
the thermometers every two hours from early in the morning 
until two hours after sunset. Make a record of the num- 
ber of corn plants which come up in each half, on the day 
when they can first be seen. 



TEMPERATURE. 








Hour 














Light surface 


















Dark surface 


















PLANTS UP. 


Day 














Light surface 


















Dark surface 



















61 



62 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

What influence does color have on the temperature of the 
soil? When is this difference greatest? How would the 
addition of organic matter affect the temperature of a soil? 
Discussion: The color of soil is due to three things: 
(1) The color may come from the original rock particles 




Fig. 25. — Corn Planted the Same Day. Dark surfaces absorb 
more heat than light objects. 

of which the soil is formed. An example of this is found 
in white sandy soil from clear quartz sand. (2) The color 
usually comes from material which sticks to the particles. 
The coloring material may be either iron compounds or 
organic matter or both. Red, yellow, blue, and gray 
soils are colored by some form of iron, and any of these may 
be darkened by the presence of organic matter. 



EXERCISE A-30. 



TO SHOW THE EFFECT OF LIME 
UPON THE SOIL. 



Equipment: Two tall bottles or cylinders; a sample 
of clay soil; a lump of lime. 

Method: (1) Make up a small quantity of limewater 
by dissolving a lump of lime in a glass of water. Add 
lime until no more will dissolve. 

Fill each bottle or cylinder with clear water and add 
to each a tablespoonful of very fine, dry, clay soil. Into 
one cylinder pour two tablespoonfuls of limewater. Now 
shake each cylinder for two minutes and then allow the 
contents to settle for a short time. In which sample are 
the particles drawn together in groups or crumbs? 

Note the time required for the water to become clear 
in each sample and record in the following table: 





Time. 


With lime 




Without lime. . 





(2) Make a mud ball of heavy clay about the size 
of a baseball. Make a second ball, mixing into the clay 
two tablespoonfuls of lime, and, as soon as both are dry, 
crush them. Which is the more easily broken? If a hard, 
cloddy soil is treated with lime what will be the effect 
upon its working qualities? 

63 




Fic3. 26. — The Presence of these Weeds Indicates that the Soil Needs 
Lime. Field sorrel to the right and horse-tail rush to the left. 

64 



TO SHOW THE EFFECT OF LIME UPON THE SOIL 65 

Discussion: The addition of lime to a heavy clay 
soil causes the very fine particles of which it is composed 
to draw together into crumbs or granules. Then when 
the soil dries, instead of being a hard, solid mass which 
will break up and form hard clods, it is loose and mellow. 
A similar effect is produced by the addition of organic 
matter in the form of stable manure, or by plowing under 
a crop of clover or rye. 



EXERCISE A-31. TO STUDY THE NEED OF THE SOIL 

FOR LIME. 

Equipment: Blue litmus paper; small bottle of hydro- 
chloric acid. 

Method: (a) Dip the end of one strip of litmus paper 
into vinegar or hydrochloric acid, and the end of another 




t 
r 



Fig. 27. — A Small Outfit for Crushing and Pulverizing Limestone for 

Use on Acid Soils. 



strip into lime water. What is the result? After thor- 
oughly washing the hands, make a mud ball by moisten- 
ing some of the soil to be tested, with distilled or fresh 
rain-water, and pressing it into shape. Break open the 
ball, place a fresh piece of the blue litmus between the two 
parts and press them together. After four or five minutes 

66 



TO STUDY THE NEED OF THE SOIL FOR LIME 67 

examine the paper; if it has turned pink there is acid 
present in the soil. The amount of acid is roughly indicated 
by the rapidity of the change and the intensity of the 
color. 

A thorough examination of the soil requires that samples 
of both surface and subsoil should be tested at several 
places in the field. 

(b) Place a small quantity of moist soil in a saucer, 
add a drop of vinegar or other acid and apply the litmus 
paper test. Add to the soil in the saucer a spoonful of 
lime and after adding a little water, mix thoroughly and 
allow to stand for some time. Again test with the litmus 
paper and note the result. What has become of the acid? 

Discussion: Acid cannot exist in the presence of lime. 
The latter is naturally present in some soils but absent 
in others. The presence of any considerable amount of 
lime in the soil can be determined in the following manner. 
Moisten a sample of the soil and mold it into a shallow cup. 
Pour a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid * into this cup 
and, if lime is present, bubbles appear at the surface of 
the soil. If a large amount of lime is present, foaming 
will occur. Put a drop of hydrochloric acid on a piece of 
limestone. 

As in the case of the test for acidity, the test for lime 
should be appHed to the subsoil, since an abundance of 
lime at a depth of two or three feet may serve a very 

* One part of hydrochloric acid to one part of water. Care must 
be taken to prevent the strong acid from coming in contact with 
the skin or the clothing. In case acid gets on the fingers, injury will 
be prevented if the hand is washed promptly or rubbed with soil. 



68 FIELD AND LABOEATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

useful purpose. Soils that are lacking in lime are usually 
sour or acid and will not produce a full crop until lime 
has been applied to kill the acid. If a soil turns the lit- 
mus paper red and refuses to grow good clover, it should be 
treated with a ton or two of fine-ground limestone. If 
the soil bubbles freely when hydrochloric acid is apphed, 
no lime is needed. 



EXERCISE A-32. 



TO STUDY THE ADAPTABILITY OF 
SOILS TO CROPS. 



Equipment: Spade or soil auger; note-book. 

Method: Make a trip across several farms and note 
the kind of crops that are being grown on sandy soils, 
on clay loams and on wet clay soils. 




Fig. 28. — The Effect of Lime upon the Growth of Clover. 



Discussion: Some crops can be grown on a great 
variety of soils, while others require a particular type for 
profitable growth. Timothy can be grown successfully on 
heavy clay, clay loam or sandy loams, but it usually does 
best on the clays, while corn is grown most profitably on 
rich loam soil. Irish potatoes require a loose rich loam 

69 



70 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

for their best development, while onions and celery are 
grown almost exclusively on black soils, very rich in humus. 
Write an account of your observations, making note 
of the extent to which the crops in your region vary on 
the different soils. 



EXERCISE A-33. TO STUDY THE PLOW. 

Equipment: A breaking plow; straight-edge, or yard- 
stick. 

Method: Examine the plow thoroughly and answer 
the following questions: 




Beam Wheel 



Share/ ^Suction 



Fig. 29. — Parts of the Plow. Note the shape of landside and share 

to give suction. 



1. Name of the plow. 

2. Name and address of the manufacturer. 

3. Locate the following parts: mouldboard, shin, share, 

point, beam, clevis, landside, heel, frog, and 
coulter. 

4. By means of the straightedge and a rule determine 

the suction. 

5. How is the plow adjusted to cut a wider furrow 

slice? 

6. How is the depth regulated? 

71 



72 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

Discussion: The purpose of the plow is to invert and 
pulverize the surface six or eight inches of soil and to turn 
under weeds and other trash. The plow is a three-sided 
wedge, the two plane sides of which press on the. bot- 
tom and the landside of the furrow while the third curved 
surface lifts and turns the furrow slice. 

Great care should be exercised to have the plow in proper 
adjustment, for if improperly set the implement is difficult 
to operate and does inferior work. If possible make a trip 
to the field and observe the operation of the plow. 

Care must be taken not to plow when the soil is too 
wet. If plowed too wet most soils become puddled and 
cloddy and may have their productive capacity impaired 
for a number of years. 



EXERCISE A-34. TO STUDY PLANT ROOTS AND THEIR 
RELATION TO SOIL MANAGEMENT. 

Equipment: Spade; yardstick. 

Method: Dig down beside a corn plant in a field, 
and measure the depth of the first roots, also the depth 
to the deepest roots. Repeat this in several places and 
in different kinds of soil. How deep may corn be culti- 
vated without injuring the roots? 

In the same manner find the depth and lateral extent 
of the roots of grasses and clovers. 

Of the plants examined, which would tend to deepen 
the soil and be the most valuable in supplying humus? 

Discussion: Roots which penetrate deep into the soil 
open up the subsoil and increase the feeding room. The 
decay of roots adds humus and makes the soil more pro- 
ductive. 

Plants are like animals in that they must have food 
and drink or they soon sicken and die. Animals can move 
about from place to place and secure their food, but plants 
must get their food and water by sending their roots out 
into the soil. The tiny roots which spread out through 
the soil are busy all of the time taking up water from the 
soil for the use of the stalk and leaves above. This water, 
as it goes into the plant through the roots, carries with 
it the plant food which it has dissolved out of the little 
soil particles. The water that goes in through the roots 
passes out through the leaves into the air and leaves the 
plant food behind to build up the tissues of the plant. 

If the soil is hard and lumpy, the little roots cannot 
penetrate far into it, but must feed near the surface. 

73 



74 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 

Stirring up the soil and breaking up the clods brings the 
water into contact with more soil surface and hastens the 
solution of the plant food. 




Fig. 30. — The Root System of a Mature Corn Plant to the Depth 

of Three Feet. 



EXERCISE A-35. TO STUDY THE ROOTS OF LEGUMES. 

Equipment: Spade; yardstick. 

Method: Carefully dig up a clover plant in the field, 
noting the tiny nodules on the roots. Dig up other legumes 
and observe their root system and the presence of nodules. 

These nodules are the home of the bacteria which have 
the power of taking the nitrogen from the soil air and 
making it available for the use of the clover plant. 

Discussion: Nitrogen is a very important food for 
plants and is very expensive when purchased in fertilizer. 
Only the legumes that have the nodules on their roots are 
able to use the free nitrogen of the soil air. The legumes 
include the common clovers, alfalfa, soy beans, cow peas, 
garden peas and many other plants, all of which have a 
beneficial effect upon the soil. 

Roots showing the nodules may be preserved in cans 
or wide-mouthed bottles by the use of formalin * solution, 
consisting of one tablespoonful of formalin to each quart 
of water. 

Observe that the nodules on the clovers and alfalfa 
are quite small, while those on peas and soy beans are 
much larger. In addition to the nitrogen which red clover 
and alfalfa bring to the soil, they exercise a very beneficial 
effect upon the physical condition by means of their strong, 
deep root system. 

* Formalin (40%) can be purchased at any drug store. It is a 
clear, colorless liquid. 

75 



76 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF SOILS 




Fig. 31. — Nodules on an Alfalfa Root. These nodules are the homes 
of nitrogen-gathering bacteria. 



TO STUDY THE ROOTS OF LEGUMES . 77 




Fig. 32.— Nodules on the Roots of Soy Beans. 



THE WILEY TECHNICAL SEEIES 



EDITED BY 

J. M. JAMESON 



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HEAT AND LIGHT IN THE HOUSEHOLD. By W. G. Whitman. 

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MECHANICS FOR MACHINISTS. By R. W. Burnham, Erasmus 
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